artÃculo de Joseph Sung-Yul Park and Lionel Wee en Canaragajah, Sureh (2017). The Routledge Handbook of Migration and Language. Routledge: London
Introduction
This paper focuses on the relationship between transnationalism in globalization and the concept of the nation-state withing language and migration studies.
Are the former undermining the latter? Or do the essentialist ties between language and national identities continue to be an important model in the context of transnationalism
it is necessary to understand the relationships between the ideologies and material conditions.
Overview
Language and the nation-state
since the 18th century: people’s identity and worldview has been guided by the notion of a state with jurisdiction over a particular territory and its citizens
citizens of the emerging sovereign states saw themselves as equal in many respects
nation state —>nationalism
Language played an important role in the creation of nation-states
the group of citizens inhabiting the boundaries of a state were supposed to speak a single language
language was carrier of the culture
However, the relationship between territory, ethnicity and language that function as the basis of the nation-state is a constructed and idealized one:
the nation-state is presented as clearly bounded and internally homogeneous
these ideologies justify and naturalize the existence of the nation-state
these ideologies must be presennted as natural and timeless through erasing everything that doesn’t fit (such as other ethnic groups, other languages)
nationalism needs to downplay difference and over-emphasize the shared features of its members
nationalism is not a stable feature, it must be maintaines
promotion of a national language is one of the social mechanisms used to maintain nationalism
Transnationalism and the challenges to the nation-state
the work implied in sustaining the nation-state and nationalism becomes harder in the context of globalization, because the role of nation-states and links between nations and states are problematized/diminished in the new economic dynamics, for example
the phenomenon of transnationalism implies even greater complications
because transnationalism ecompasses relationships across national borders, it is not just relevant fro migrants, but also for those who are not on the move
it problematizes the essentialist links between territory, language and national identity that sustain the idea of nation-state
multiple belongings and flexible sense of moorings
a shared identity among people may be no longer be strongly attached to a physical territory
while the state is still important as an institutional arrangement, it may no longer be as important to determine someone’s identity
‘flexible citizenship’: as opposed to a more traditional sense of citizenship, a choice of citizenship is no longer influenced by a sense of loyalty or identification with the community, but by whatever is more convenient economically
of course, such flexibility is only afforded to an elite (citizenship is still granted by a state)
states also employ economic criteria when selecting potential new citizens
states may continue to be relevant, nation-states less so
bc language is so central to the idea of nation-state, what is the role of language in this context? are the ties between language and national identity being weakened or is an essentialist view of language still relevant to the shaping of identities?
Issues and ongoing debates
the opposing views regarding language and nation state in the context of transnationalism show the complexity between these terms
multiple ideologies of language
Transidiomaticity (Jacquemet):
recombination, mix or hybridization of linguistic resources
intersection between moving people and moving texts through new technologies
use of newly acquired techno-linguistic skills
in doing so people increase their social worth (power)
However, individuals are still physically located somewhere (as Blommaert and Maryns argue)
this mitigates claims about deterritorialization
this process has been met with tendencies towards hegemonization and centering of language and linguistic practices
- emphasis on purity and ownership
it also means there will always be localized constraints that they need to negotiate
any discussion about power needs to be qualified
assylum seekers have been deterritorialized, but their narratives and language practices in the host societies are attemtps at reterritorializing
nation state’s relevance: migrants’ use of language is judged against the hegemonic positioning of the local national language, which leads to social discrimination based on the idea that the migrant’s version of language lacks legitimacy
example: Rinkeby Swedish, the variety of Swedish spoken by migrants in the Rinkeby neighborhood as judged by the native Swedish population
this label applies to the Swedish spoken by a hetergoenous community of migrants
both native Swedes and immigrants themselves consider this variety to be inauthentic Swedish
nation state’s relevance: migrants struggle to find legitimacy for their language use from the host society, which uses the nation-state as a reference point for community
the opposite can also happen: example of French-Canadian school struggling to maintain its commitment to heritage while also accommodating new students who find value in Parisian French and English as more "global" languages
Thus, ideologies of essentialist connection between language and national identity are juxtaposed with ideologies that view this connection as flexible
this contestation takes place in the context of an increased reflexivity and awareness of life elsewhere brought about by globalization
Implications of this complexity
Language and citizenship
migration leads to liguistic diversity and thus to different valuations of the codes and varieties
if left unchecked these can lead to discrimination, segregation, etc
therefore language policy decisions need to interfere in this process so that national unity can be maintained while at the same time respecting diversity
- essentialist language ideologies need to scrutinized because they can become the basis for intolerance
- for example, in language tests as the way to obtain citizenship
- it is necessary to remain aware of tying the access to a community to the skill in one specific language // as well as the respect that each migrant’s background and its role in the learning of the new language needs to be respected
Heritage language education
should this education be guided by nation-state ideologies and the accompanying idea of a "standard" language which is the most appropriate and convenient to learn for the migrant population?
younger generations are able to construct hybrid identities which allows them to be mobile without abandoning their affiliation to their heritage language and ethnic community
thus transnationalism offers both challenges and advantages for heritage language education:
problematizes the idea of heritage in relationship with the nation state
offers diasporic communities an opportunity to re-articulate their social position
Language in the new economy
context: global scale production, off-shoring and transnational companies: other ways in which the idea of nation state is undermined
this does not mean that essentialist views on language dissappear, they are in fact used by the transnational corporations to rationalize aspects of multinational/multicultural work
although multiculturality in the workforce is seen as a resource, not all forms of difference are equally valued
employees from particular nation states as seen as having appropriate language skills for the workplace, while others are pressured to conform to this ideal
cultural difference is treated as ahistorical and essential
the conditions of the new economy are always ideologically mediated
citizenship is a category that involves gradations of esteem depending on the different subcategories of citizens
higher skilled workers enjoy more rights, welfare protection and flexible choices in acquiring citizenship
Future directions:
it is important to keep in mind that transnationalism as a label cannot account for/distinguish all the different kinds of migrants and migran trajectories.
It is important to keep these in mind to understand how nation-state ideologies affect different migrants differently
a focus on social class can be useful
linguistics has been focused on the discursive construction of identity, which has left aside the material conditions in which an identity emerges, particularly in the way social classes and inequality interact in capitalism
wether or not particular migrants are treated as skilled foreigners in their host society, will depend on the latter’s needs and receptiveness
migrant professionls tend to have a higer level of autonomy, and their linguist repertoire is more likely to be perceived as an index of cosmopolitanism, as opposed to their less skilled counterparts
thus intersectionality and power are important to bring into the analysis
Future research must also reconceptualize language competence to account for its fragmented and truncated nature, for every individual, as competence is always mediated by the dominant language ideologies of a particular setting
these ideas must be taken account by language policy makers
this view would suggest that there is compatibility in the maintainance of the native language and the acquisition of the host society language
Summary
critical review of the relationship between transnationalism, language and nation-state, and its implications for the research on migration and language:
overview of nation-state and transnationalism, and how these concepts are sites of tension in the context of globalization
review of the debates on whether transnationalism destabilizes the role of the nation-state with a focus on linguistic studies that approach this issue
implication of thos estudies for policy, research and pedagogy in three domains where the relationship between transnationalism, language and nation-state introduces new tensions:
language and citizenship
heritage language education
language and the new economy
suggestions for future research:
need to consider the multiplicity of transnational experience with the lens of social class
need to approach language taking into account that truncatedness and fragmentation are central to its use